Friday Harbor Laboratories Student Research Papers

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://digital.lib.washington.edu/handle/1773/16338

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The Effects of Size Variation on Schooling Cohesiveness Daniel Geldof, Rory Caskey, Jackie Fox
(2025) Geldof, Daniel; Caskey, Rory; Fox, Jackie
Fish schooling is a common behavior in fishes that has been around for at least 50 million years. This collective movement increases swimming efficiency, foraging success, and predator detection. Schooling is determined by both instinct and learned behavior, this leads them to school with biomechanically similar fish. Understanding how fish school with morphologically dissimilar fish. Larger fish school better with smaller fish while all fish school better with fish they are socially familiar with. Disturbances that may pull schools apart are increasing over time with global climate change and increase in natural hazards, like hurricanes. This leads to a necessary understanding of fish school reaggregation behavior. This was done by testing schools of fish of similar morphologies and fish of different morphologies to see how schooling behavior varies between them. It was shown that there is no significant difference in nearest neighbor distance based on morphologies which indicates that fish are able to school with fish of dissimilar sizes. In the future other variables will need to be considered for a better picture of the behavior of these schools.
Do aerobic and anaerobic capacities affect the ability to repeatedly escape from predators, and how does personality play a role?
(2025) Pettinau, Luca; Hancock, Grace; Nettlebeck, Eli; Knuteson, Isabel; Steffensen, John; Johansen, Jacob; Domenici, Paolo
The escape response is the main anti-predator strategy used by fish to escape from predators. It consists of a rapid muscular contraction that quickly thrusts the fish in a direction opposite to that of the predator. Although, this swimming performance involves primarily the activation of white anaerobic muscles, recent evidence suggests that the capacity to aerobically repay an O2 debt, due to anaerobic activity, can affect the escape response. This link between escape response and aerobic and anaerobic capacity might be especially relevant in the context of escape from multiple predator attacks, i.e. when predators attack in groups. However, this hypothesis has never been tested before. Therefore, this project aims to investigate the relationship between the ability to repeatedly escape from predators and the aerobic scope (AS) and Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC). Our results showed that across repeated escape response stimulations, the responsiveness to predator attack simulation declined, probably due to habituation rather than metabolic fatigue, while escape latency remained stable. However, these two variables were not associated with AS or EPOC. While in this report, we only focus on the link between metabolism and behavioural components of repeated escape performance, in the broader project, we also measured how personality (“bold – shy” axis; “anxiety - risk taking” axis) could affect escape response performance. Including this additional analyses is needed to gain a deeper understanding of how physiological and behavioural aspects affect escape response.
Effects of a Varied of Pectoral fin movement in Visual Looming Stimulus for Pacific staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) and shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata)
(2025) Heim, Steve; Nara, Miki; Dawes, Liv; Jones, Nadalee; Steffensen, John; Johansen, Jacob; Domenici, Paolo
When startled, fish perform an escape response to flee from predators. Looming, a technique to visually stimulate a fish, has been extensively studied; however, studies have focused on a simplified loom that approximates the silhouette of an approaching predator as an expanding disk. We hypothesize that more detailed silhouettes of species-specific predators may have different effects on fish of different ecology. To this end, we look at the effect of adding flapping fins to the loom, simulating a seal attack, which adds both spatial and temporal detail to the loom. We use this to startle two different species of fish: staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus), a benthic and cryptic species, and shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata), a benthopelagic species active in the water column, both of which are commonly preyed upon by local harbor seals. Four loom treatments were used: a black disk with flapping fins (additional spatio-temporal detail), a black disk with stationary fins (additional spatial detail), a black disk without fins (control), and a pair of flapping fins with no disk (control).
Swimming at the Edge: Testing the Endurance-Exhaustion Hypothesis in Shiner Perch (Cymatogaster aggregata)
(2025) DeLong, Aaron; David, Gift Samuel; Suleiman, Badiozaman; Debaere, Shamil
Fish escape responses are a type of fast start used by fish to avoid predation. Better escape performance leads to increased fitness due to increased ability to avoid predation. However, predators of fish can employ a number of behaviors and tools to increase their ability to catch prey fishes. One behavior employed by predators is prolonged chasing, which should exhaust fishes when they are forced into an oxygen debt while swimming at speeds that require burst swimming and the use of anaerobic muscles. It is hypothesized that more exhausted fishes will be worse at escaping from predators. In this study we aim to determine if exhaustion level effects escape performance. Shiner perch, (Cymatogaster aggreagata), a labriform swimming shore fish from the Pacific coast of North America, was used to test this hypothesis. We used critical swimming speed tests to determine gait transition (Up-c) and critical swimming speed (Ucrit). We then rested the fish overnight and transferred the fish to a large flume and tested their escape response while swimming for 20 minutes at 1 BL/s, Up-c, and Ucrit. Mean Up-c was reached at 4.24 ± 0.45 BL/s and mean Ucrit was reached at 4.92 ± 0.51 BL/s (mean ± standard deviation). Mean aerobic scope was 682 ± 174 mgO2/kg/h with most variation occurring in maximum metabolic rate (MMR). Shiner perch optimal swimming speed was 3.21 BL/s. Responsiveness to escape response stimulus increased with exhaustion, but not significantly. Onset of escape response was significantly longer at Up-c and Ucrit speeds compared to 1 BL/s, turning angle did not significantly differ among the levels of exhaustion. Our results indicate that escape performance may not be substantially altered while swimming at different levels of exhaustion.
Effects of a Varied of Pectoral fin movement in Visual Looming Stimulus for Pacific staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) and shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata)
(2025) Heim, Steve; Nara, Miki; Dawes, Liv; Jones, Nadalee; Steffensen, John; Johansen, Jacob; Domenici, Paolo
When startled, fish perform an escape response to flee from predators. Looming, a technique to visually stimulate a fish, has been extensively studied; however, studies have focused on a simplified loom that approximates the silhouette of an approaching predator as an expanding disk. We hypothesize that more detailed silhouettes of species-specific predators may have different effects on fish of different ecology. To this end, we look at the effect of adding flapping fins to the loom, simulating a seal attack, which adds both spatial and temporal detail to the loom. We use this to startle two different species of fish: staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus), a benthic and cryptic species, and shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata), a benthopelagic species active in the water column, both of which are commonly preyed upon by local harbor seals. Four loom treatments were used: a black disk with flapping fins (additional spatio-temporal detail), a black disk with stationary fins (additional spatial detail), a black disk without fins (control), and a pair of flapping fins with no disk (control).
The spawning and development of Mopalia muscosa from fertilization through metamorphosis at Friday Harbor Laboratories
(2025) Nicholas, Khrista; Varney, Rebecca
Exploring unique physiological processes across animal taxa inspires ideas and innovations. Chitons are marine mollusks that biomineralize teeth with magnetite, an iron oxide mineral. Iron is toxic to animals in high concentrations, so past research focused on how adult chitons use iron. In situ spawning and fertilization of chitons have historically been unreliable, so larval and juvenile specimens have been difficult to obtain to study radula development. Here we describe methods that induced spawning in Mopalia muscosa and Katarina tunicata, as well as several methods that failed. We maintained cultures of M. muscosa through metamorphosis. Our experimental spawning trials and photographic documentation of M. muscosa build on past literature to further understand the embryology, development, and metamorphosis of chitons. In the future, the samples we collected across developmental stages will be used to reveal the timeline of morphological and transcriptomic changes of early stages of M. muscosa, especially as it relates to radula growth and the start of iron biomineralization.
Intertidal sand dollar Dendraster excentricus larvae are resilient to high temperatures in early development and at settlement
(2025) Mariscal Del Toro, Meztli; Lagmay Alonso, Aki; Edsinger, Eric
Understanding how different stages in the life cycles of benthic marine invertebrates respond to environmental stressors is essential for predicting future population dynamics and can be critical to the management and conservation of species. With the rise of global warming and its effects on the ocean, this study examined the effects of temperature and chemical cues on early larval development and settlement success in the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus. Adults collected from an intertidal population on Orcas Island, WA. Individuals were spawned, and embryos and larvae were cultured under controlled laboratory conditions across a range of temperatures representative of typical intertidal field conditions. Data on early development and settlement under temperature and chemical cues were recorded. Results showed that elevated temperatures for 24 hours starting at fertilization accelerated developmental rates and produced abnormalities starting at 25°C. In contrast, temperatures as high as 30°C had no detectable effect on larval settlement but were lethal at 35°C. Additionally, the presence of sand as a cue for settlement had a significant effect on settlement decisions. These findings highlight D. excentricus as a model for thermal resilience and underscore the importance of thermal variability and extremes and the different sensitivities found at different stages in the life cycles of benthic marine invertebrates. More broadly, this work provides insight into how rising ocean temperatures may influence recruitment dynamics in benthic communities.
Crabby Consequences of an Invasive Seaweed Cuisine: the scoop on Poop, Mass, and Molting in Pugettia gracilis
(2025) Marcial, Gabriela; Dobkowski, Katie
Along the western coast of North America, kelp forests contribute greatly to the productivity of marine ecosystems and are essential to maintain biodiversity (Springer et al., 2010). Throughout their geographic range, bull kelp forests house a variety of fi sh and invertebrates, and provide nursing and nesting grounds for shorebirds and sea otters (Springer et al., 2010). However, deleterious abiotic and biotic forces are threatening these bull kelp forest dynamics. Among those threats, climate change continues to cause increasing shifts in the density and distribution of bull kelp (Beas‐Luna et al., 2020). Frequent marine heatwaves, ocean acidifi cation, and the reduction of trophic regulators such as sunfl ower stars, are threatening bull kelp numbers (Arafeh-Dalmau et al., 2023). In Northern California, more than 90% of kelp forests have been lost due to these marine heatwaves and overgrazing by sea urchins (Arafeh-Dalmau et al., 2025). Heatwaves in particular, as a result of climate change, are compromising kelp forests’ capacity to provide coastal protection, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration, all costing billions of dollars to humanity (Smale, 2019). The combined eff ects of these stressors has reduced the ability for kelp forests to bounce back and recover, and as foundation species, their loss can profoundly impact hundreds to thousands of species that rely on them (Arafeh-Dalmau et al., 2025; Rogers-Bennett, 2019).
The Pacific sand dollar Dendraster excentricus: A New Model to Explore Novelty in Neural Circuits
(2025) King, Isabella; Edsinger, Eric
Decoding how neural circuitry functions and evolved is no small task, but studying how disparate nervous systems produce similar behaviors may offer unexpected insights. Cephalopods possess complex hierarchical nervous systems with a centralized brain adjacent to their decentralized nerve ring, cords, and ganglia of their arms, whereas echinoderms lack a centralized brain but have an independently evolved nerve ring with ganglia and radial nerves. Both groups possess numerous specialized appendages on “multi-arm” axes that serve analogous locomotor and sensory functions. This study focuses on how Dendraster excentricus, the Pacific sand dollar, can be used as a novel research model to investigate neural circuit evolution, given its unique secondary bilateral symmetry that is superimposed on the ancestral pentaradial structure observed in sea urchins. We used time-lapse videography in lab and field settings to generate behavioral ethograms of D. excentricus and initiated work using deep learning tools to analyze locomotion. These approaches, along with microCT and confocal imaging, will enable us to compare body movements and coordination of tube feet and spines across individuals. Initial findings are reported here. Specifically, our findings revealed distinct locomotor behaviors in D. excentricus that suggest directional control and spatial awareness, despite its decentralized neural anatomy. This research contributes to the understanding of how morphological and ecological divergence shape neural circuit functionality and provides a comparative framework for studying the evolution and function of nervous systems in marine invertebrates.
Temperature spikes and marine heatwaves trigger rapid larval development in Pisaster ochraceus (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)
(2025) Kelley, Ciera; George, Sophie
In the North Pacific, marine heatwaves (MHWs) have been increasing in intensity, frequency, and duration, and have resulted in large ecological shifts in the rocky intertidal. The sea star Pisaster ochraceus, a keystone species in the rocky intertidal, has seen declines of up to 90% associated with MHWs. This study focused on the effect of MHWs and temperature “spikes” on the larval stage of P. ochraceus. Larvae were reared in control ambient (CA) temperatures of 11.0-16.0℃, constant control (CC) temperatures 11.0-11.7 (±1℃), and MHW temperatures that rose to a maximum of 20°C (±1℃) over a 12-day period and remained high for 40 days before returning to ambient conditions. Morphological measurements and development of larvae from each treatment were obtained once a week. Linear regression and PCA analysis were conducted to summarize and visualize the morphological data. Linear regression revealed strong correlations between total length and total width and stronger correlations between total length and preoral process length for CA and MHW treatments. PCA showed that at 15 days post fertilization (dpf) and 22 dpf, the morphological space occupied by MHW larvae differed significantly from both control treatments, while the two control groups (CA and CC) were similar. By 29 dpf, the morphological space occupied by larvae in all three treatments diverged significantly. The separation of CC larvae in morphological space from CA larvae was evident. Spicule formation and the appearance of brachiolar arms and adhesive disk appeared much earlier for MHW larvae than for larvae in the control treatments (CA and CC). This study shows that both MHWs and temperature spikes can trigger rapid larval growth and development, potentially impacting settlement through their effects on the development of critical juvenile structures.
Morphologically driven swimming dynamics of the longnose skate
(2025) Kaplan, Alex; Vandenberg, Megan; Racy, John Michael; Summers, Adam; Habtour, Ed; Boom, Bart
Skates propel themselves using winglike pectoral fins that generate undulatory waves along the body. We hypothesize that their skeletal morphology, parallel rows of fin rays composed of mineralized radials, enhances locomotion by passively directing waves through stiffness. Stiffness decreases distally down each fin ray due to bifurcation, and the space between parallel fin rays reduces stiffness along the anterior to posterior axis of the fin. We compared swimming in a live longnose skate (Raja rhina) to the passive motion of a deceased specimen driven by a vertical linear actuator. We used motion tracking to quantify frequency, wavenumber, and amplitude. We investigated whether an undulatory wave can be passively generated without muscle activation, and at what frequencies it most closely resembled live swimming. We observed that for live swimming, small increases in frequency were able to significantly increase swimming velocity, with the skate having a preferred frequency and wavenumber range. This range also matched the observed values calculated from the dead skate’s response, with similar frequencies of maximum amplitude for the live and deceased skate. At these peak frequencies, the output wavenumbers also matched. These results indicated that morphology alone supports wave propagation without active muscle input. Musculoskeletal structure constrains and optimizes the swimming frequency and wavenumber, highlighting the role of passive mechanics in undulatory swimming in the longnose skate.
Analysis of the Vertebral Morphology of Pacific Sand Lance, Ammodytes personatus
(2025) In, Elynore; Proulx, Owen; Egbert, Tatiana; Donatelli, Cassandra; Cohen, Karly
Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes personatus) are small head-first burrowing fish distributed throughout the North Pacific Ocean. Despite lacking typical morphology of other burrowers, their elongate bodies allow for rapid burrowing through undulation. Vertebrae support full-body movements like swimming and bear the mechanical load for the axial skeleton. We hypothesize that structural changes in vertebrae, such as changes in mineralization and shape, enhance undulatory performance and help generate the forces needed for burial. We microCT scanned 22 sand lance (SL 33-95mm) to estimate the bone mineral density and used geometric morphometrics to characterize shape variation along the length of the fish and over ontogeny. We found sand lance vertebrae were 1.25 times denser near the head and tail regions compared to the middle. Additionally, the main drivers of vertebral shape variation were the prominence of the hemal spine and the angle of the neural and hemal spines relative to the centrum. These localized morphological increases in density and shifts in spine orientation may serve as additional support and points of force transmission for initiating and sustaining burial.
Pigeon Guillemots as a Model of Maritime Urban Adapters
(2025) Howell, Emma; Cook, Amy
As the human population surpasses 8 billion and development encroaches at the edges of remaining wild areas, wildlife and humans are increasingly finding themselves in conflict for the same resources and, at times, even space. In the face of the sixth mass extinction, many species are being pushed to the edge of their tolerance of human presence. A paradigm has been introduced to describe three prominent categories of wildlife response to urban encroachment: urban avoiders, which cannot adapt to habitat significantly altered by humans, urban adapters, which may frequently occupy habitat overlapping with human use, and urban exploiters, which are primarily or exclusively found in conjunction with human populations (Rodewald & Gehrt 2014). Persisting in altered urban environments may place certain species under highly specific and amplified selective pressures that could alter their behavior and morphology over a short period of time (Marzluff 2012).
Relationships between SSTs, air temperature, and coastal fog using field data and satellite remote sensing
(2025) Fatland, Isabella; Lundquist, Jessica
Understanding how sea surface temperature (SST), air temperature, and coastal fog interact is increasingly important for studying climate refugia in coastal environments, increasingly so as the climate warms and coastal zones are exposed to more extreme conditions during the summer. Using Landsat imagery, in situ air temperature and relative humidity (TRH) data, time-lapse camera imagery, and Conductivity Temperature Depth sensor (CTD) profiles, we studied spatial and temporal variability in these components of ocean-atmosphere interaction around San Juan Island, WA. SSTs derived from Landsat images from summer 2021-2024 showed consistent temperature differences between warmer water at the north end and colder water at the south end of the island. Air temperature differences between sites typically followed SST patterns, but correlations varied with local weather patterns. Time-lapse camera imagery and TRH data showed foggy days to be cooler and more humid than clear days. CTD casts showed strong short-term stratification during rising tides and indicated upwelling in certain regions, suggesting that mechanical mixing may influence SST variability. These results refine our understanding of how local ocean-atmosphere interactions can influence temperature and fog formation and can help identify coastal climate refugia.
Mapping Feeding-Strike Related Functional Morphology Across Syngnathoidei
(2025) DuToit, Alexander; Short, Graham; Donatelli, Cassandra; Cohen, Karly; Holzman, Roi
Syngnathoidei, a diverse suborder of syngnathiform fish, include the families Aulostomidae and Fistularidae (cornetfish and trumpetfish), Centriscidae (snipefish and shrimpfish), Solenostomidae (ghost pipefish), and Syngnathidae (seahorses, pipefish, and seadragons). These specialized suction feeders are capable of capturing small zooplankton with remarkable speed. These rapid feeding strikes are powered by elastic energy stored in the epaxial tendons, which is released during prey capture. In seahorses (genus Hippocampus), this system is further enhanced by an elongated sternohyoideus tendon, creating a secondary spring that supplements the epaxial system. The effect of this increasing functional complexity on the wider mechanical linkage system remains unclear in this morphologically diverse clade. Here, we used μCT scan data to measure functionally relevant bone lengths across 30 syngnathiform species from 5 families. We then compared those lengths across a phylogeny to determine where certain features involved in the suction feeding system evolved. We found significant correlations between various functional measurements and identified a robust phylogenetic signal for urohyal length. This marks a transition from a one to two-spring system between pipefish and seahorses, as an elongated sternohyoideus tendon replaces the shortened urohyal bone. We also report ossification of the epaxial tendon in several closely related pipefishes, a feature that may constrain their ability to generate high-powered feeding strikes relative to other lineages.
Buckle Up for Buckling: Poacher Fish Scale Behavior Under Compression
(2025) Andersen, Brody; Cohen, Karly; Corn, Katherine; Vandenberg, Megan; Racy, John Michael; Donatelli, Cassandra
Poacher fishes (Agonidae) are a family defined by their bony armor. Unlike the flexible scales possessed by many fishes, poachers are encased in rigid plates that overlap in rows. Uniquely, when viewed in the hoop direction, rows appear as distinct geometric rings which can be dissected out both digitally and physically. These rings vary across species in both number and arrangement of plates, forming octagons, hexagons, and squares. The diversity in row count and overlap across species implies different ring designs may be specialized for different functions. To test this, we 3D-printed models of poacher armor rings as regular polygons with flexible joints at either the center or corners, varying the number sides to match the diversity seen in nature. We used a material testing system to compress the models to a locking position, recording force displacement curves for each model. We found that, across most shapes, models with central joints, which most closely match poacher scale morphology, require more force to reach a locked position than models with joints in the corners. This means the models that closely resemble fish, despite being contradictory to conventional engineering design, resist compression better. Poachers are not fast swimmers and thus hide under rocks, compressing themselves, but due to their scales’ resistance, they can prevent damage to their soft internal structures.
Flocking and flushing behavior in roosting gull (Laridae) flocks on San Juan Island
(2025-08) Schubert, Laura; Kie, Michelle; Zhu, Yulin
Roosting behavior is known to provide a variety of benefits to flocking birds; however, the behavior of roosting gulls has received limited study. In particular, the impact of human disturbance on these roosting flocks, especially as human activity on beaches increases, is the subject of almost no recent research. To address this knowledge gap, we collected abundance, behavioral, and disturbance data at two sites on San Juan Island. We found some evidence for behavior variation based on time of day, position in the flock, and age, as well as strong evidence for behavior variation based on site. Specifically, gulls at South Beach, a site with more human disturbance, spent more time alert and moving; gulls at Argyle Lagoon, a site with less human disturbance, spent more time resting and preening. Most flushing events we observed involved dogs (70.2%) or only humans (19.1%); in general, flushing frequency was correlated with human and dog abundance. After flushing, gulls were either displaced down the beach or into the water; repeated disturbance eventually resulted in all gulls being displaced to the water. Our findings help characterize the behavior of gulls in roosting flocks and demonstrate that these flocks are frequently impacted by disturbance, which may result in frequent energetic or opportunity costs. Long-term research is necessary to determine whether these costs impact gulls at the population level and across longer time scales. We recommend further research in this field to continue expanding our understanding of gull flocking behavior and the impact of human disturbance on coastal wildlife.
Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus bachmani) behavior and prey selection in intertidal zones on San Juan Island, Washington
(2025-08) Mendelson, Sydney; Timura, Kol
The Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus bachmani) is a foraging shorebird with a year-long presence in the San Juan Islands that has a specialized beak, used to dislodge prey off rocks in the intertidal zone. Their role as ecological indicators means that shifts in their behavior and diet provide insight into ecosystem health, yet they remain an understudied species. There are no studies focusing on behavior, intertidal composition, such as algae cover, or prey availability of Black Oystercatchers in the San Juan Islands. We conducted a behavioral study using focal animal sampling to understand how Oystercatcher behavior changes across intertidal zones and employed quadrats to assess prey availability using systematic random sampling at two sites, Hunt Property and Third Lagoon on San Juan Island, WA, USA. We found that foraging behavior occurred more frequently at Third Lagoon than at the Hunt Property, likely due to differences in intertidal composition and increased prey availability. Our results indicate that Oystercatcher behavior and foraging success are dependent on intertidal composition and will vary across zones. These findings highlight the need for further research on Black Oystercatchers, their behavior, and prey availability, and may have important implications for management.
Spatial and Temporal Changes in Bigg’s “Transient” Killer Whale ( Orcinus orca rectipinnis ) Distribution Within the Central Salish Sea from 2001-2025
(2025-08) McDermott, Katherine
Within the central Salish Sea, Bigg’s “transient” killer whales ( Orcinus orca rectipinnis ) have become an increasingly common occurrence, but little published research is available on their spatial and temporal shifts. This paper aims to categorize the changes in the distribution of Bigg’s killer whales throughout the central Salish Sea region by compiling and analyzing public sighting records from 2001 to 2025. Metadata was taken from sighting records publicly available on Orca Network, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, and unique sightings were sorted by major region. 3,875 unique encounters were documented over 2,849 unique days, with a mean sighting frequency of 155 sightings per year. Sightings increased from 38 in 2001 to 385 in 2024. Temporal variation on a monthly scale was observed, with the greatest number of sightings occurring in late spring (April-September) and late summer (August-September), with a decline in July sightings that coincides with peak harbor seal ( Phoca vitulina ) pupping seasons in the Puget Sound Region. A spatial change has been documented since 2001 as well, with an increasing area of habitat use within the central Salish Sea. A potential cause for this could be an increase in both prey availability and Bigg’s population size. A larger-scale or range-wide spatial and temporal analysis would be beneficial in contextualizing the changes and trends observed in this paper to determine what factors may be playing the biggest role in determining changes.
Harbor Seal (Phoca Vitulina) Social Dynamics: Behavioral Comparisons of Mother-Pup Pairs, Lone Pups, and Lone Adults in the San Juan Islands, Washington During Summer 2025
(2025-08) Mattingly, Kara; Kay, Camille
June to September are some of the most vulnerable months for harbor seals (phoca vitulina) in the San Juan Islands because of human disturbances during the pupping season. When threatened, mother seals may flush and abandon their pup until the disturbance is gone. Extended separations from mom can be fatal, and as anthropogenic disturbances increase, the amount of abandoned pups could also increase in the next upcoming years. Our research aims to provide information for harbor seal pup rehabilitation and conservation in the Salish Sea by observing mom-pup pair interactions and important social behaviors they do together. Additionally, our research provides knowledge on social behavior of lone pups and lone adults which can be used for further research to compare habituation of these animals. We found that lone adult seals spent the most amount of time resting/loafing, while lone seal pups spent the most amount of time being vigilant compared to other seal groups. We also found that mom-pup pairs spent 100% of flushing and swimming time together, revealing the importance of mothers showing pups how to flush and the necessity of giving seals the opportunity to swim in rehabilitation centers.

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