Urban planning

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://digital.lib.washington.edu/handle/1773/4972

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The Value of Resilience: Flood Risk, Information Disclosure, and Housing Markets in New York City
(2026-04-20) Chen, Chin-Wei; Berney, Rachel
Flood risk increasingly shapes where households live, how much they pay for housing, and how safety is traded off against affordability in U.S. urban housing markets. As climate change intensifies flooding hazards and expands exposure beyond traditionally recognized high-risk areas, many households face constrained choices between safer locations and affordable housing. Historically, housing markets have often failed to fully price flood risk, reflecting limited disclosure, uneven risk communication, and uncertainty about whether public mitigation investments meaningfully reduce risk. As flood risk information becomes more visible and as governments invest in resilience, understanding how households and markets navigate the trade-off between safety and housing costs is critical for equitable urban policy. This dissertation examines how flood risk, information disclosure, and mitigation investments interact to shape housing market outcomes, with a particular focus on New York City. The first study systematically reviews the empirical literature on climate-related hazards and housing prices, highlighting how research has evolved from disaster-focused analyses toward frameworks that examine ongoing risk exposure and household decision-making. The review emphasizes how flood risk introduces a persistent safety-affordability trade-off in housing markets and identifies gaps in how studies account for information disclosure and mitigation as mechanisms that may alter this balance. The second study examines how the evolving flood-risk information environment, including the release of risk data on real estate platforms and new disclosure requirements, affects housing prices over time using an interrupted time series approach. The findings show modest and uneven market responses, with disclosure events shifting housing price trends rather than causing abrupt repricing, suggesting gradual diffusion of flood-risk information in housing markets. The third study evaluates whether community-level flood mitigation activities influence the relationship between flood risk and housing prices using transaction-level hedonic models. The findings show that some mitigation investments can partially offset the negative capitalization of flood risk by signaling improved safety and resilience, although the magnitude of these effects varies across neighborhoods and types of intervention. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that flood risk is not simply capitalized into housing prices but negotiated through trade-offs among safety, affordability, and trust in public action. Risk disclosure can gradually reshape market behavior by increasing the visibility and salience of climate risk, while mitigation investments influence whether households view flood-prone locations as viable long-term housing options. By linking flood risk analytics, market behavior, and public investment, this dissertation provides policy-relevant insights into how cities can manage climate risk while addressing housing affordability and social equity.
New Institutionalisms and Mechanisms of Comparative Policy Analysis
(2026-04-20) Alqadhib, Abdulaziz M.; Whittington, Jan
This dissertation examines why renewable energy transitions unfold differently across political and economic institutional systems by comparing the structures shaping solar development in Texas and Saudi Arabia. Both regions possess strong solar resources and face decarbonization pressures; however, their trajectories diverge in terms of pace, coordination, and policy effectiveness. This study evaluates the institutional environments, governance arrangements, and historical pathways’ structural opportunities and constraints in renewable energy transitions.Using a comparative institutional framework integrating New Institutional Economics, Transaction Cost Economics, and Path Dependence, the research applies process tracing, archival research, and project-level comparison supported by regulatory filings, operational data, national planning documents, and reports from public energy institutions. The findings show that decentralized, contract-based institutional systems reduce uncertainty and coordination hazards, while hierarchical, layered systems elevate administrative transactions and reinforce carbon-centric routines, shaping transition outcomes.
Embracing Informality in the Eastern Coachella Valley: Building Climate Justice Through Design in Polanco Parks
(2026-02-05) Zaragoza, Rebecca T; Born, Branden
California’s Eastern Coachella Valley faces a persistent and acute shortage of safe and affordable housing for its essential workforce, particularly farmworkers and low-wage service workers. In response to this housing gap, small mobile home parks have emerged since the early 1990’s — many of which developed outside of formal planning processes. Commonly known today as Polanco Parks, these communities represent a vital, though often overlooked and stigmatized, form of informal housing. While they provide critical shelter to thousands of predominantly Latinx residents, Polanco Parks are frequently characterized by substandard or aging infrastructure, limited access to basic services, and geographic isolation from urban centers and municipal services. This thesis investigates the historical and spatial dynamics that have shaped the emergence and marginalization of Polanco Parks, with a focus on their growing exposure to extreme weather events under climate change. Through a qualitative methods approach that combines historical analysis, policy review, and spatial vulnerability assessment, this research contextualizes Polanco Parks within broader frameworks of informal urbanism and environmental and climate justice. It then proposes a conceptual site design for a selected case study park to explore strategies for place-based resilience. The design articulates a framework to support culturally-informed place-making, climate-adaptive infrastructure, well-being, and short- to long-term resilience. Ultimately, this thesis argues for the recognition of inclusion of informal housing typologies like Polanco Parks within regional climate adaptation planning and calls for targeted interventions that address both immediate infrastructure needs and long-term resilience.
Space as Strategy: The Implementation Architecture of the Federal Indian Boarding School Policy
(2025-10-02) Aronowitz, Keala; Stevenson, Dylan
This study explores the history of the United States' Federal Indian Boarding School program from a policy perspective, the architectural design of the early school sites and buildings, and issues in contemporary historic preservation planning regarding management of the system's sites. A review of the history of the Federal Indian Boarding School system documents its origins in federal legislation authorizing partnerships between the US government and private religious organizations to operate schools for the purpose of the civilization of Native children through assimilation. This inquiry traces one line of the history from New England to Hawaiʻi to Virginia to Pennsylvania, documenting the implementation architecture including the administrative logic that informed the organizational structure and the strategic use of the built environment in the evolution of the early schools from experiment to prototype to pilot, enabling the replicability and scalability of the system over time. Analysis of the policies and the use of architectural design as dual implementation strategies yield findings that are used to generate recommendations for contemporary historic preservation approaches contributing to the acknowledgement, documentation, and reconciliation of this history toward the self-determination of Native communities.
Out of Harm's Way: Prioritizing Community Assets in Westport, WA
(2025-10-02) Newbold, Abby; Abramson, Daniel B.
This thesis project develops a three-step methodology to prioritize community assets in hazard-prone areas for community resource-sharing objectives, with a focus on the city of Westport, WA and the surrounding coastal area. The area of study is at risk of islanding, being cut off from the surrounding urban centers due to natural disasters and hazards. The research begins by parsing community-identified assets from prior workshops to create a comprehensive asset inventory aligned with local knowledge and values. Next, assets were mapped against hazard exposure scenarios, including tsunami and sea level rise. Finally, the study applied a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) framework, informed by community-identified themes related to resource sharing, to rank assets by their potential to enhance post-disaster resilience. Results highlight public spaces like parks and the school as priority assets for resilience efforts, given their roles in community life. This study emphasizes the importance of integrating community perspectives and dynamic hazard assessments into resilience planning to enhance local preparedness. The project also outlines opportunities for future research, including community asset scoring.
Sustainable Transit through Public Agency Leadership: Policies, Economics, and AI
(2025-10-02) Cai, Mingming; Shen, Qing QS
This dissertation integrates three empirical studies to advance planning and decision-making for Transit-oriented Development (TOD) and Transit-Incorporating Mobility-on-Demand (TIMOD) services led by public agencies in regional growth centers and low-density areas. The first study develops a multi-criteria tool to prioritize TOD on public land through a suitability assessment. The tool incorporates 14 indicators across five domains, including public transit service, land use, sociodemographics, real estate market conditions, and planning context. It is applied under three development scenarios: affordable housing, market-rate housing, and mixed-use development. This tool enables public agencies to strategically leverage land assets to support transit-supportive and equitable development.The second study evaluates the comparative cost-effectiveness of TIMOD relative to fixed-route transit, driving, and commercial ride-hailing services in low-density settings. A comprehensive social cost estimation framework is employed, incorporating traveler and service provider costs alongside transportation externalities. Findings indicate that TIMOD generally incurs higher social costs than other mobility alternatives due to its higher operating costs, while it provides time-cost savings and improved access for travelers in areas with limited fixed-route transit coverage. These insights inform more nuanced subsidy strategies and service deployment models for underserved populations in such contexts. The third study develops a context-aware probabilistic spatiotemporal graph neural network (CA-STPGNN) to predict sparse demand for TIMOD services and quantify the associated uncertainty in low-density areas. The model integrates contextual information, temporal features, and multi-task learning as regularization to capture spatiotemporal dependencies in TIMOD trip patterns. Using data from real-world TIMOD programs in Washington State, the proposed model demonstrates superior predictive accuracy and uncertainty estimation compared with traditional approaches, while also revealing spatial heterogeneity in the influence of spatial and temporal features. This model can be applied to predict TIMOD demand in regions lacking observed data, thereby supporting public agencies in design and implementing cost-effective mobility solutions in low-density contexts. Together, these three studies contribute adaptive tools, empirical evidence, and methodological innovations to support equitable, efficient, and context-sensitive transportation and land use planning in low-density contexts.
Reclaimed for People: Lessons Learned from New York City's Transformed Public Spaces
(2025-08-01) Charvoz, Anthony M; Chalana, Manish
A vast majority of public space is dominated by the movement and storage of cars at the expense of pedestrian safety and comfort, especially in cities in the United States. New York City transformed street space formerly dominated by auto-centric use into pedestrian plazas under the PlaNYC policy directive in 2007-2013, offering a unique opportunity to study public space reclamation for people in the US urban context. This thesis presents a theoretical framework for analyzing public space evolution and the urban forces that act upon public spaces, using five knowledge bands within this framework to categorize these urban forces. Academic literature on global examples was used to confirm the strength of the knowledge bands. Three case studies of public plazas emerging from former auto-oriented street space in New York City were explored using the framework. Lessons learned from the transformation process for these three spaces and outcomes in the present are translated into insights for future planners and decision makers who wish to understand how urban forces may contribute to street space reclaimed for pedestrian use.
Cycling by Design and by Demand: The Interplay of Formal Planning and Grassroots Efforts in Copenhagen’s Cycling Landscape
(2025-08-01) Cooper, Lela Rani; Born, Branden
Copenhagen is widely celebrated as one of the world’s most bicycle-friendly cities, known for its formal cycling network, ambitious mode share goals, and a coordinated, top-down approach to planning. However, this narrative can obscure the city’s strong culture of community-led action. From street-level adaptations and advocacy to the autonomous, car-free community of Christiania, grassroots efforts have significantly shaped Copenhagen’s cycling landscape. This research examines the interaction between formal planning and grassroots initiatives in shaping the city’s cycling culture. The central research question is: How do grassroots movements and formal planning interact in Copenhagen’s cycling success, and why does this interplay matter for urban mobility planning? To investigate, the study draws on historical context, planning literature, and documents, as well as unstructured interviews and experiential site observations informed by Situationist International principles. Findings reveal a co-created urban mobility system where formal and informal forces converge, offering insights for planners and advocates seeking more participatory approaches to cycling planning.
Identification of Opportunity Neighborhoods for the Implementation of the Covenant Homeownership Program in King County, Washington
(2025-08-01) Wing, Malia; Campbell, Christopher
This thesis investigates the spatial relationship between neighborhood opportunity and affordability in King County, Washington. The goal is to identify areas that are most suitable for the implementation of the Covenant Homeownership Program - a new, race-conscious down payment assistance program enacted statewide in 2024. The program specifically aims to redress historical discrimination in access to homeownership by supporting first-time homebuyers whose families were impacted by redlining and other exclusionary policies prior to the Fair Housing Act of 1968.The thesis will employ GIS-based suitability analysis tools to combine variables across five key categories - education, economics and mobility, neighborhood quality, health and environment, and affordability. The process will create a composite index of “opportunity.” Separate life-cycle models will aim to reflect the needs of differently structured households. The findings reveal a substantial spatial mismatch between high-opportunity and affordability, with few areas offering both above-median opportunity and affordability. The life-cycle models indicate that neighborhood suitability does vary significantly depending on household needs and priorities. These results suggest that while the Covenant Homeownership Program offers a promising framework for equitable homeownership, additional policies or investments may be needed to truly enable access to high-opportunity areas. This research highlights the importance of neighborhood characteristics in determining the efficacy of down payment assistance programs and provides a replicable methodology for local and state governments seeking to promote spatial equity in homeownership.
Electrification of On-Demand Transportation: A Comparative Analysis of Individual Perceptions on the Electrification of Taxis and TNCs
(2025-08-01) Gray, Alexander Thomas; Whittington, Jan; Shen, Qing
This thesis explores the divergent pathways of electric vehicle (EV) adoption within San Francisco’s on-demand transportation sector, focusing on taxis and Transportation Network Companies (TNCs) such as Uber and Lyft. As cities advance aggressive climate mandates, electrifying high-mileage urban fleets is both a technical opportunity and a policy challenge. Drawing on six semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders and a spatial analysis of EV charging infrastructure, this study examines how individual perceptions, regulatory structures, and institutional support influence electrification trajectories. Findings reveal that while TNCs have made significant progress, enabled by corporate incentives, flexible ownership models, and regulatory alignment, the taxi industry faces more acute barriers, including limited infrastructure access, financial constraints, and skepticism toward policy support. Thematic coding highlights contrasts in agency, awareness, and trust, with taxi stakeholders frequently citing fragmented communication and operational inflexibility as key deterrents. Spatial analysis further demonstrates infrastructural inequities that compound these challenges. This research contributes to a growing body of literature framing electrification not only as a technological transition but as a reflection of institutional capacity, governance design, and the perceived legitimacy of change. The thesis concludes with planning recommendations that emphasize differentiated policy tools, equity-centered infrastructure investment, and the need for more inclusive communication strategies to ensure a just and comprehensive transition to zero-emission on-demand mobility.
Land Use Regulation Impacts on Urban Energy Solutions: A Review of the Port of Bellingham's Low-Carbon District Energy System
(2025-08-01) Mubita, Inonge Naluchima; Born, Branden
Jurisdictions in Washington state are faced with concerns of aging infrastructure, increasing energy demand, and complying with state and local energy performance targets. Low-carbon district energy systems are local, neighborhood utilities that integrate renewable energy and waste heat to deliver heating and cooling services to multiple buildings in a defined service area. This system can provide higher levels of energy efficiency and lower long-term operating costs compared to standalone building approaches. Through reviewing the Port of Bellingham's low-carbon district energy system, this paper highlights the motivations for developing district energy systems and examines the role of urban planning tools and regulations in shaping their feasibility. This thesis utilizes semi-structured interviews and documentation analysis, evaluated through thematic analysis. Results indicated strong alignment of motivations between energy infrastructure operators and the Port and City of Bellingham, resulting in reduced regulatory or siting constraints for district energy. However, results also highlighted zoning, siting constraints, and coordination with various public agencies as key constraints in other district energy projects. This paper highlights how shared sustainable infrastructure can support energy performance and broader community goals. As well as how district energy systems can become catalysts for innovation and experimentation, as cities explore new ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and invest in resilient infrastructure.
Cafe Streets and Kiezblocks as Civic Commons Policies for and Patterns of Outdoor Dining in Berlin and Seattle
(2025-08-01) Chrisafis, Constantine Anastasios; Whittington, Jan; Johnson, Julie
This thesis investigates how outdoor dining helps activate streets, engender hybrid infrastructure and transform public right-of-way into civic commons, focusing on Berlin’s Kiezblocks and Seattle’s CafÃ© Streets. In both cities, outdoor dining programs reconfigure public streetscapes through spatial, operational, and governance interventions, but they emerge from distinct cultural and policy contexts: Berlin’s Kiezblocks are resident-driven traffic-calming initiatives that reclaim streets for mixed community use, while Seattle’s CafÃ© Streets arose from city-led partnerships with business improvement areas (BIAs) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Building on theories of hybrid infrastructure and public space management, this study employs a design-based, visio-spatial methodology. Through on-street photography and site inventory, I analyze how outdoor dining spaces are structured, delineated, and experienced, capturing indicators including accessibility, physical barriers, public seating, and other factors. An analysis operationalizes these indicators to classify each site’s level of publicness and hybridization, offering a systematic framework for evaluating how civic these spaces remain alongside their commercial functions. Findings reveal that while both cities activate streets through outdoor dining, the spatial expressions of hybrid infrastructure differ markedly. Kiezblock sites tend to foster a more porous, co-designed interface between public and private realms, whereas CafÃ© Streets often reinforce commercial dominance with stronger territorial cues. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of how cafÃ© streets might mediate between privatization and activation to help foster a civic commons.
An FPHS-Based Health Equity Evaluation for Pacific County Health & Human Services
(2025-08-01) Newman, Evelyn; Stevenson, Dylan
This evaluation explored how a local health department is implementing Washington State’s Foundational Public Health Services (FPHS) framework, with a focus on advancing health equity in a rural context. The project aimed to assess the department’s internal capacity, examine alignment between FPHS investments and local priorities, and identify opportunities for more strategic and equitable public health delivery. A mixed-methods approach was used to capture a comprehensive picture of the health department operations and context. Data sources included a review of Community Health Assessments, Community Health Needs Assessments, and FPHS Annual Reports from State Fiscal Years 2023 and 2024. In addition, a 48-question staff survey was designed and administered to gather both quantitative and qualitative data from employees across the department. The findings were synthesized to inform a set of phased, equity-focused recommendations tailored to the county’s rural public health context.
Preservation in a Changing Urban Landscape: Kampung Case Studies in Three of Jakarta Heritage Districts
(2025-08-01) Mulyani, Husna Abharina; Stevenson, Dylan
This thesis examines the intersection of urban heritage preservation and the transformation of kampung, Jakarta’s vernacular settlement form. Historically excluded from formal planning, kampung has played a key role in the city’s spatial and social development. Recent efforts to include some kampungs in designated heritage districts signal a shift in their perceived value. Using archival research, policy analysis, and case studies from Kota Tua, Menteng, and Kebayoran Baru, this study explores Jakarta’s preservation goals, policy shifts, and their impact on kampung’s spatial and social fabric. The findings reveal a gap between formal preservation strategies and the everyday practices that sustain kampung life. By emphasizing spatial features like alleyways and communal areas, the thesis calls for a more inclusive, community-centered approach to preservation. It offers policy insights for aligning heritage efforts with equitable urban development in Jakarta.
Progressive Nostalgia in Housing Design: The Porosity & Potential of Adaptive Reuse
(2025-08-01) Clayton, Colleen; Chalana, Manish
Through a literature review and review of ten local case studies, this thesis explores nostalgia in the built environment as a tool for overcoming resistance to change, particularly in regard to how adaptive reuse projects can aid in overcoming public opposition to increased housing density. This research was inspired by the critiques of nostalgia and the staunchness of the criteria required for historic landmark designation, the more flexible idea of porosity in adaptive reuse, and the vital relationship between democracy and housing. In pursuit of innovative housing options, I argue that a reframe of nostalgia and a new set of future-oriented criteria and priorities for adaptive reuse housing projects could help advance progressive housing goals like achieving greater housing density, offering more diverse unit types, retaining architectural distinctiveness, and promoting democracy in housing choice and affordability. The variety of Seattle adaptive reuse case studies provide hopeful examples to answer the most simplistic version of my research question: how do we promote new ideas about housing in old buildings?
Rent and the Dynamics of Housing Tenure, Search, and Policy: A Local Perspective from Brazilian Cities
(2025-08-01) Costa da Silva, Ana Flavia; Berney, Rachel; Born, Branden
Brazil’s persistent housing deficit, affecting approximately 6.2 million households in 2022, reflects longstanding limitations in the country's housing policy systems. Despite growing levels of cost burden, particularly among low-income renters, the provision of rental housing remains fragmented and underdeveloped, typically addressed through emergency programs or localized initiatives. As rental markets expand, both formally and informally, and as digital platforms transform the way people search for housing, understanding these shifts is crucial for informing equitable and sustainable housing policy. This dissertation investigates the changing landscape of rental housing in Brazil through three interrelated studies. The first examines the adoption and discontinuation of local-level policies between 2007 and 2019. It highlights how factors such as administrative capacity, mayoral turnover, and political ideology correlate with the stability of housing initiatives. The second study examines the geography and coverage of online rental platforms in the city of Belo Horizonte, uncovering spatial and socioeconomic disparities in listings that reflect and potentially perpetuate patterns of urban inequality. The third study examines the emergence of social rental housing policies in Brazilian municipalities, highlighting how these efforts are influenced by policy ambiguity, local resistance, and uneven implementation, despite growing interest in rent-based solutions. Together, these studies enhance our understanding of the growing importance of renting within Brazil's urban housing system, while offering a cautionary account of the volatility that characterizes housing policy in the country. It also critically assesses the promise and limitations of digital rental platforms as sources of data for housing research. In conclusion, this dissertation underscores the necessity of addressing the growing and shifting housing deficit through multifaceted solutions tailored to the diverse needs of low-income populations. It also offers insights intended to inform policy decisions based on evidence and the active, consistent involvement of affected communities.
Historic Districts and Neighborhood Dynamics: Examining Links to Segregation, Transformations, and Affordability
(2025-05-12) Choi, Sunho; Chalana, Manish
Historic districts have been widely designated to preserve neighborhood character in American cities, yet research on their broader role in relation to neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics remains limited. The equity preservation framework, which emphasizes inclusive processes and equitable outcomes, provides a conceptual lens for critically examining the functions of historic districts within neighborhood dynamics. Using a mixed-methods approach, three empirical studies explore the designation of historic districts by investigating relationships to historical redlining and recent segregation, identifying longitudinal patterns of neighborhood transition, and highlighting conflicts with recent upzoning initiatives. Synthesized findings underscore the multifaceted role of historic districts, revealing their intricate relationships with neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics and their potential to advance stability or worsen exclusiveness. These findings suggest implications for planners and preservationists, suggesting the need for a more integrated approach to align historic district designations with broader urban planning agendas, thereby achieving social justice goals within preservation policies and practices.
Within the Fence Line: Spatial Analysis of Naval Station Bremerton
(2025-05-12) Sisemore, Beau; Born, Branden
This thesis compares contemporary military planning codes with widely accepted civilian land use planning practices using Naval Station Bremerton as a case study. Military installations prioritize security, efficiency, and operational effectiveness, which often contrast with urban planning principles that emphasize mixed-use development, walkability, and community cohesion. This study addresses two primary research questions: 1) How do small urban space design practices compare to the planning codes and regulations of Naval Station Bremerton? 2) Where do these frameworks align, and where do they diverge? Through a systematic literature review and comparative analysis of base master plans, Department of Defense land-use policies, and Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC), the research explores the intersection of military and urban planning principles, particularly in areas such as land-use mix, density, pedestrian accessibility, and public space integration. The findings highlight areas where flexibility exists within military planning regulations and offer insights into improving military base land use and design, balancing operational effectiveness with enhanced livability and functionality.
Contextual Practices in City Infrastructure Planning in the US and Indonesia
(2025-05-12) Prasetyawati, Dian; Whittington, Jan
This dissertation contains an international examination of infrastructure planning in context, which applies new institutional economics and transaction costs theory for comparative international study, collecting exemplary social infrastructure practices across the global north and south, and contrasting economic zones development and the discretionary approach to urban planning, with respect to the make or buy decision and to the project outcomes. This dissertation gathers three studies. The first examines the role of urban and regional planning in the provision of social infrastructure in different economies. The second study discusses the role of the state in the contextual understanding of economic zones as alternatives to traditional urban and infrastructure planning. Specifically, the study compares, in terms of a make or buy decision, the rationale for Seattle's institutional arrangements for public water supply and Batam's economic zone authority's choice to privatize the water supply system. The third study links the findings in the second study with more detailed assessments of the cost of the two arrangements at the project level, with a discussion on the transaction costs outcomes of simple water supply projects. Together, the three studies provide planners with an approach for contextualizing the gap in urban planning studies across countries in the global north or south by grounding planning based on comparative practices in city and infrastructure planning, which corresponds with variations of institutional environment.
Spatial Dynamics of Environmental Health: The Impact of Vegetation Greenness and Heat Exposure on Mental Health Outcomes Across California Census Tracts
(2025-05-12) Yang, Sha; Chen, Tzu-Hsin Karen
This study examines spatial relationships between environmental factors, socioeconomicconditions, and mental health across California census tracts using a Spatial Durbin Error Model. Analysis of 7,963 tracts revealed significant spatial autocorrelation in mental health distress (Moran's I = 0.4713, p < 0.001). Median household income was the strongest predictor of mental health distress (direct effect: β = -0.0000489, p < 0.001; indirect effect: β = -0.0000193, p < 0.001). Vegetation greenness showed a significant protective direct effect (β = -3.8818, p < 0.001) without significant spillover effects, indicating localized benefits. Conversely, maximum temperature demonstrated no significant direct effect but had significant positive indirect effects (β = 0.1022, p = 0.0016), suggesting regional rather than local influence. The substantial spatial error parameter (λ = 0.73511) and strong spatial autocorrelation in both vegetation (r = 0.820) and temperature (r = 0.992) validate the spatial modeling approach. These findings enhance understanding of how environmental factors influence mental health through different spatial mechanisms and inform targeted intervention strategies addressing both socioeconomic and environmental determinants of health.

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