Changing Narratives of Buddhism and Its Dynamic Relations with the State in Imperial Japan

Abstract

Modern histories often study narratives on wars from perspectives of geopolitics and international relations. However, the two world wars in the twentieth century were so pervasive in their impact on the world that no part of the human society had really escaped their deadly touch. For this reason, in this paper, I would like to attempt to explore the issue from a different angle by analyzing the changing narratives of Buddhism (or in fact Buddhisms) in Imperial Japan on militarism and nationalism and its relations with the state. The significance of native Japanese religious experiences and interpretations of the events leading up to the end of the second World War, which I believe are a key element in understanding Japanese struggle for its modernization in the early twentieth century, deserves a closer examination. The relationship between religion and war is a delicate matter that often involves large amount of controversies. Japanese Buddhism is no different in this respect. Brian Victoria's Zen at War (and to a lesser degree its successor Zen War Stories) is a provocative work that contributes to the rethinking of Zen Buddhism's relationship with the Imperial Japanese state in the first half of the twentieth century especially during the Second World War by bringing to the front stage the fervent support of Zen Buddhism for nationalism and militarism in Imperial Japan. Zen at War spares no criticism in exposing Buddhism's ideological justification and political and military mobilization for the imperialistic expansion and military aggression of Japan, in which even D.T. Suzuki, the key figure behind Zen Buddhism's popularity in the Western world, has been brought under keen scrutiny for his role in supporting Japan's imperialism and militarism. Of course, Zen Buddhism was not the only denomination of Buddhism in Imperial Japan that supported the government's promoted ultra-nationalism and war efforts. Joudou Shinshuu (Shin Buddhism), another major Buddhist branch in Japan, had also been active in the shaping of Japanese nationalism since the early days of the Meiji era. Thus, this paper will place focus on these two schools of Buddhism. It might seem to be a curious thing on the surface that Buddhism, a generally perceived pacifist religion, would have been so closely associated with war, militarism and imperialistic expansion. Precisely because of this seeming contradiction, the Buddhist perspective on war is essentially interesting. One of the core doctrines of Buddhism is nonkilling and nonviolence due to its belief that all life forms are equal. To the Buddhist, the taking of even an insect's life is a violation of this universal equality. However, when the need arises, a Buddhist will not shy away from fighting demons both figuratively and literally. In addition, Buddhism preaches that life is filled with constant suffering but salvation/liberation from such suffering is achievable through the practice of Buddhist teachings. In a world devastated by war where even the loss of life is a common occurrence, this seems to be particularly relevant and appealing. Less well known but no less important is the fact that Buddhism also preaches its version of the coming of the end of the world. Certain schools, such as the Pure Land and Nichiren, specifically emphasize on this issue. When the invention and application of nuclear weapons made the theory of apocalypse a real possibility that threatened all humankind, Buddhist perception of war may be worth extra exploring too.